Impacts
As a zoonotic disease, the Nipah virus thrives on interactions and proximity between animals and humans. While NiV does have extreme effects on humans, there are also many anthropogenic activities that enable outbreaks to occur and exacerbate their severity.
Malaysia (1998-99)
The first outbreak of Nipah occurred in Malaysia from September 1998 to May 1999. The results included the slaughter of over 1 million pigs as well as 283 human cases of viral encephalitis (inflammation of the brain) with 109 deaths. Around 60% of Malaysian pig farms were lost alongside 36,000 jobs and US$120 million in exports.
There were several causes for this outbreak, one of which was that at the time, the virus was thought to be connected to Japanese encephalitis (JE). Sanitary and preventative measures were taken in accordance with JE until the discovery of the Nipah virus and its transmission. A lack of understanding and information about NiV did not allow the at-risk communities to take proper action.
A second cause of the Malaysian crisis addresses reducing habitats for fruit bats, the host reservoir of the Nipah virus. Several deforestation practices throughout 1997 and 1998 lead to a substantial decrease in forest habitats for fruit bats, as the land was cleared for pulpwood, industrial plantation, and orchards. In addition, slash-and-burn deforestation led to a severe haze blanketing large areas of Southeast Asia prior to the NiV outbreak. The issue worsened with intense droughts brought about by the 1997-98 El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO). As flowering and fruiting forest trees that bats used for foraging became less and less available, fruit bats were forced to encroach on cultivated land. Due to the fact that piggeries were often located in orchards and the architecture of most pigsties, the transmission of Nipah between the host to animals and eventually humans was enabled.
Agricultural Industrialization
Another major cause of not only the Malaysia outbreak but over 16 more outbreaks across Asia since then is agricultural industrialization. Scientists have concluded that NiV cases have likely been showing up for decades but on small scales because farms were less densely populated with animals. However, in the 80s and 90s, families in Malaysia benefited from a massive economic boom and could afford to buy more meat, specifically pork. Consequently, farmers began packing large numbers of pigs into smaller spaces, aiming to produce more meat with fewer resources.
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The downfall of the productivity was that viruses would spread like wildfire with limitless numbers of pigs and piglets to infect. The movement of pigs and interactions between farms allowed the disease to grow. As humans came into close contact with infected animals through assisting in the birth of piglets, administering medication, or the handling of deceased pigs, the Nipah virus was transmitted to humans. Globally, people are still in a phase of ‘factory farming’ where new viruses and strains of diseases are constantly discovered.
Impact on Bats, the Reservoir Host
A common impact of zoonotic disease is the automatic installation of fear in the people susceptible to the virus. In the case of Nipah, when raising awareness about correct prevention and treatment methods, it is important to understand that the host reservoirs, fruit bats, are essential to their ecosystems and must not be hunted. Over 300 types of fruit rely on bats for pollination as they disperse seeds while foraging on nectar and fruits of rainforest trees. Moreover, without bats consuming certain insects such as moths and beetles, agricultural businesses would have a higher chance of damaged crops.
